Grace Ji-Sun Kim, Professor of Theology at Earlham School of Religion, has made another significant contribution to the field of constructive theology with her book Invisible: Theology and the Experience of Asian American Women. All Kim’s works manifest her calling to bring to the surface the voices of the marginalized, particularly Asian American women, and her quest to redefine theology to empower the marginalized. The book builds on a previous work titled Embracing the Other: The Transformative Spirit of Love (2015), which gives the history of Asian American immigration and in so doing functions as a helpful foundation to Invisible. This new offering is a thought-provoking socio-theological protest against a discriminatory Eurocentric American society and its churches.

As suggested by the title, the central theme of this present volume is the sense of invisibility that prevails in the experience of Asian Americans and Asian American women in particular. Kim expounds on four senses of social invisibility: (1) Asian Americans are underrepresented both socially and politically and have only obscure social status in the American-dominant society. (2) The racial discrimination experienced by Asian Americans is minimized and trivialized in comparison with the polarizing Black-and-white racial issues. (3) Asian American women are regarded by the dominant culture as submissive and erotic sexual objects, and are denied agency in many situations. (4) Asian American women experience gender discrimination, are often placed in support roles, and are denied the chance of leadership in Asian immigrant churches and Asian culture. Kim argues that such invisibility is also a spiritual and theological issue. The Western church has ignored Asian American concerns, and now the voices of Asian Americans and Asian American women are needed to decenter Eurowestern theology and to construct a more liberational theology, one that will empower Asian American women as full members of the kin-dom of God (4-5).

The first chapter describes the patriarchy that prevails in Asian culture and that contributes to the marginalization of Asian American women (28). The stereotypes of Asian women as submissive, sacrificial, and quiet, and the Confucian teachings on gender roles that strictly governed the behaviour of Asian women in their native countries are still evident among many Asian Americans. In sum, Asian American women’s lack of visibility is largely attributable to Asian patriarchal culture.

The second chapter describes the systemic racism directed against Asian Americans throughout their immigration history, and also their experiences of double marginalization in both the dominant American society and Asia. The early immigration laws in the United States, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, along with the concept of the “Yellow Peril” reveal the xenophobia and systemic racism directed toward Asian Americans (47). Furthermore, Asian Americans live in the two cultures of the United States and their native countries but belong fully to neither. In other words, they are doubly marginalized. Kim refers to this in-between space as a liminal space, which means a state of transition, a threshold, or a space to create something new. For Kim, a liminal space is where Asian Americans and Asian American women can share their stories. It thus becomes a creative and subversive space from which to transform the existing society (69).

The third chapter discusses the xenophobia, past and present, that contributes to a hatred of immigrants and to racism against Asian Americans. Xenophobia marginalizes Asian Americans for not being “true” Americans, for being perpetual foreigners. At the same time, it produces a distorted elevation of Asian Americans through terms such as honorary whites and model minority. Such a distortion aggravates racism against Asian Americans. Their oppression becomes insignificant, even nonexistent and invisible, and the distortion contributes also to racial conflict among racial minorities (73-74). In this way Kim sheds light on the destructive impact on Asian Americans, especially on Asian American women, of covert racism, microaggression, and the internalization of stereotypes.

The fourth chapter describes sexism against Asian American women in the home and in society, with special attention to churches. She takes the example of Korean immigrant churches which provide fellowship, education, social status, and ethnic identity, especially for male adult members (112-113). However, based on her own experiences, Kim explains that Korean American women in the immigrant churches have been subjugated and are excluded from leadership positions. There are two reasons for this: the Western patriarchy in traditional theology and the ideology of Confucian patriarchy. In particular, Kim contends that the Eurowestern patriarchal notion of God legitimizes white privilege and women’s subjugation in the church (119). The chapter ends with a call to reimagine God using wisdom language in a more inclusive and empowering way.

The fifth chapter is Kim’s vision for a theology that uses Asian concepts to address the invisibility of Asian Americans and Asian American women. Her theology is a convincing attempt to eliminate racism, sexism, and xenophobia, and to secure the liberation of the marginalized (124). Eurowestern patriarchal theology, as perpetuated in the image of a white male God, has led Asian American women to internalize false identities as subordinate and obedient (124). That theology has also supported colonialism, presented Asian culture as inferior, and encouraged xenophobic actions against Asian Americans (125-126). In response, Kim provides four Asian concepts that can contribute to eliminating such racism, sexism, and xenophobia: ou-ri, han, jeong, and Chi. She accentuates the interdependence that is imperative in a theology of visibility through the term ou-ri, a Korean word meaning “our.” The perspective of ou-ri transforms an individualistic worldview and encourages a more communal concept of God and more inclusivity toward others. Han, the Korean word for unjust suffering, reminds us of the invisibility of Asian American women’s oppression and suffering, while jeong, the Korean word for sticky love, will help build up more inclusive communities with God’s love. Chi, an Asian concept for spirit, is similar to the biblical words ruach and pneuma. Chi, which is the life-giving Spirit, is within our bodies and part of our daily living (147). Kim argues that Chi offers an inclusive and powerful notion of God (146).

This book makes a significant contribution to constructive theology and to Asian American studies in at least three ways. First, it unearths the hidden and invisible oppression of Asian Americans, and Asian American women in particular, that is deceptively covered by the dominant society under the concepts of model minority and honorary whites. Hence, the book leads Asian American women into awareness of their internalization of racism, sexism, and xenophobia, and empowers them to resist white supremacy and patriarchy. Second, the book epitomizes the well-known phrase, “the personal is political.” Through detailed illustrations from her own life, Kim shows how her personal experiences have been affected by the white supremacy and patriarchy in the wider socio-economic and political realm. Third, the book offers Asian sources for her vision of theology of visibility. The Asian sources of ou-ri, han, jeong, and Chi decenter Eurocentric patriarchal theology, uncover the hidden oppression of Asian Americans, honor positive aspects of Asian culture, and transform theology in a more inclusive manner.

I would like to raise a critical point about the compatibility of the Asian concept of Chi as a parallel with the Christian God in Kim’s proposed theology of visibility. Chi is understood in Asia as spirit, a life force, the energy of a person, or a community, or even the universe, but it is not necessarily divine. The concept of Chi has its origins in Chinese religion; however, the Christian concept of God indicates a deity with a personality. Without these clear distinctions, Kim’s transformative approach may be regarded as a form of syncretism.

I am certain that her in-depth research into the intersectionality of racism, sexism, and xenophobia; her anecdotes with their beautiful and detailed descriptions; and her vision for a theology of visibility will offer fresh insights, challenges, and hope for Asian Americans, students, theologians, and church leaders.

Moon Jung Choi

University of St. Michael’s College

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